INVALID CHARGE INDEPENDENCE
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) July 17 , 2015 After my published paper "Nuclear structure ..electromagnetism" (2003) today it is well known that the strong nuclear force is the result of the strong electromagnetic interaction of considerable charge distributions in nucleons due to 9 extra charged quarks in proton and 12 extra charged quarks in neutron. Note that the charged quarks Up and Down discovered by Gell-Mann and Zweig led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons Unfortunately under the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) theoretical physicists abandoned the well-established electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong nuclear theories and models which cannot lead to the nuclear force and nuclear structure. So, despite the enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions (1926) based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism neither was able to reveal the simplest structures of deuteron and helium. For example the great physicists Heisenberg (1932) and Yukawa (1935) under the invalid relativity and the assumptions of the uncharged neutron developed wrong theories of the so-called strong interaction which cannot lead to the nuclear structures of the simplest deuterium and helium. On the other hand in the absence of the fundamental charge-charge interaction of natural laws in order to interpret the very strong attractive nuclear force at very short distances of about 1.5/1015 m the nuclear physicists hypothesized that an unknown attractive force in the systems proton-neutron, proton-proton and neutron-neutron occurs under the invalid Charge Independence Hypothesis. Moreover after the discovery of the charged quarks (1964) Gell-Mann in 1973 under the false theories of relativity and of Yukawa did not use the well-established charge-charge interaction of the discovered charged quarks but he tried to interpret the wrong strong interaction by developing his theory of quantum chromodynamics. Note that he postulated the strange “color forces” between hypothetical massless gluons which cannot exist in accordance with my DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS . Under this physics crisis I analyzed carefully the magnetic moments of nucleons and I discovered 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give the simplest nuclear structure of the deuterium and of other nuclei by reviving the well-established laws of electromagnetism. (See my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON ) . It is of interest to note that in my paper of 2003 I showed that two neutrons and two protons at very short distances exert repulsive electromagnetic forces of short range which in some symmetrical cases the very strong attractive electromagnetic forces of the proton-neutron interactions overcome such repulsive forces and lead to the nuclear structure. Nevertheless today many physicists continue to believe incorrectly that the small difference between the neutron-proton and proton-proton interactions can be accounted for by assuming that an unknown attractive force occurs in the systems proton-proton, proton-neutron, and neutron-neutron under the fallacious idea of Charge Independence. For example in the “Charge Independence- Encyclopedia” one reads: “Charge Independence is the principle that the nuclear (strong) force between a neutron and a proton is identical to the force between two protons or two neutrons in the same orbital and spin state. As a generalization of the nuclear physics definition, the principle that the strong interactions of particles are unchanged if a particle is replaced by another particle of the same isotopic spin multiplet.” Especially today many nuclear physicists believe incorrectly that when two protons are very close together an unknown attractive nuclear force is dominant and when they are far apart it is the well known electrostatic repulsive force which is dominant in very heavy nuclei. In fact, I discovered that in both cases the proton-proton and the neutron-neutron systems at short distances give repulsive forces of short range. Obviously, most nuclei are stable and thus there must exist the attractive electromagnetic force between a proton and neutron which binds them together , because it overcomes the proton-proton and neutron-neutron electromagnetic repulsions. This force known as the nuclear force is a net attractive electromagnetic force of short range that acts between protons and neutrons at the short distances between them (about 1.5 /1015 m). Within the nucleus, where the protons and neutrons are very close together, the electromagnetic nuclear force dominates the repulsive electromagnetic forces between proton-proton and neutron-neutron repulsions and holds the nucleus together like the forces of ionic crystals. However in heavy nuclei the long-ranged repulsive proton-proton forces overcome the short ranged forces of proton-neutron attractions. On the other hand in neutron stars the gravitational force of long range overcomes the electromagnetic repulsive neutron-neutron force of short range. Also it is unfortunate that physicists today influenced by the invalid relativity believe incorrectly that the binding energy of the nucleus is due to the fallacious idea that the mass defect turns into the energy. In fact , I discovered that the binding energy between a proton and a neutron in the simplest structure of deuteron during the electromagnetic interaction turns into the energy of generated photons and the so-called mass defect turns into the mass of the photon m = hν/c2 in accordance with the two conservation laws energy and mass. (See my E = mc2 IS CONFUSING and my PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS). It is observed that the mass of any nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the individual constituent nucleons which make it up. On the other hand in order to separate the nucleons, energy must be supplied to the nucleus. This is usually accomplished by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles (atom smashing). It is well known that too many protons relative to the number of neutrons in a nuclide results in instability. This is explained by the mutual long-ranged electrostatic repulsion of protons beyond a certain distance. However today many physicists hypothesize that there is a strong force attraction between protons but this attraction drops off rapidly with separation distance. In fact, for larger nuclei some of the protons are necessarily at distances from each other where the long-ranged electrostatic repulsion overwhelms the short-ranged electromagnetic attraction of proton-neutron systems. Therefore for stability a nuclide needs an excess of neutrons to offset the long-ranged electrostatic repulsion of the protons. This is all perfectly plausible but what accounts for the fact that too many neutrons compared to the number of protons also results in instability? This is one element of the evidence that neutrons repel each other. UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE QUALITATIVE APPROACH OF PAULI’S PRINCIPLE HEISENBERG EXPLANED INCORRECTLY THE PARALLEL SPIN OF DEUTERON STRUCTURE Unfortunately under the influence of the qualitative approaches of the so-called Pauli principle of two spinning electrons of opposite spin (1925), Heisenberg in 1932 for the explanation of the simple proton-neutron system proposed a fallacious isospin T since the parallel spin (S=1) of deuteron is forbidden by the “exclusion principle” characterizing the coupling of two electrons with antiparallel spin (S=0). Historically after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) which led to the abandonment of the well-established laws of electromagnetism theoretical physicists tried to understand the nuclear strong force; it was one of the principal problems in physics in the mid-twentieth century. About 1932, Heisenberg proposed incorrectly that the proton and neutron might really be two states of the same particle, now called the nucleon. It is well-known that in atoms of two electrons despite the discovery of the electron spin which gives a peripheral velocity greater than the speed of light, Pauli under the influence of the invalid relativity for the explanation of paired electrons proposed his qualitative “exclusion principle” which cannot be applicable in the simplest nuclear structure of deuterium, because the binding energy of the p-n interaction occurs when the spin is parallel (S =1). In fact, the peripheral velocity (u>>c) of the opposite spin of two electrons gives stronger magnetic attraction than the electric repulsion. ( See my DISCOVERY OF TWO-ELECTRON ATOMS ). Since the above qualitative approach of Pauli describes two different states of the same particle (electron) then it seemed convenient for these reasons to consider the neutron and the proton as two states of the same entity - the nucleon. It should be stressed, however, that the arguments described above are misleading in their simplicity of the proton-neutron system with parallel spin. In fact, after my discovery of extra quarks in nucleons according to the application of electromagnetic laws the negative charge of -Qn = -8e/3 distributed along the periphery of neutron interacts electromagnetically with the positive charge of +Q = +8e/3 distributed along the periphery of the spinning proton for giving the parallel spin (S = 1) of the simple n-p system. However in the absence of the detailed structure of nucleons Heisenberg proposed the fallacious isospin T. One wrong application of the assumed generalized Pauli principle could explain the experiments of proton-proton (p-p) and neutron-neutron ( n-n ) systems. For example for T =1 one observes that the p-p and n-n systems have opposite spin ( S=0 ), while for T = 0 the p-n system operates with parallel spin (S=1). In fact, two protons of opposite spin cannot make a pair because the spin of nucleons gives a peripheral velocity smaller than the speed of light. Under this condition the electric repulsion Fe is greater than the magnetic attraction. Thus the net electromagnetic force Fpp is a repulsive force given by Fpp = Fe - Fm . Whereas in the simple p-n system the net electromagnetic force Fpn is an attractive force because the magnetic attraction of parallel spin contributes to the total attraction. ' ' SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF DEUTERON STRUCTURE AND BINDING In my paper “Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism” one can find an accurate explanation of deuteron structure and binding by using my differential equations which reveal the deuteron structure and give exactly the binding energy E = -2.2246 MeV. To avoid such a difficulty of differential equations I present here a simple method by using the electric and magnetic forces between the distributed charges of proton (p) and neutron (n). For example the detailed analysis of the magnetic moments and of the deep inelastic experiments gives point charges at the centers of proton and neutron respectively. -q = -5e/3 and +Qn = +8e/3 Whereas for the charges existing along the peripheries of proton and neutron the analysis gives +Q = +8e/3 distributed along the periphery of proton and -Qn = -8e/3 distributed along the periphery of neutron. Thus for a separation d (diameter)between the two point charges at the centers of the two nucleons the application of the coulomb law gives an attractive electric force Fe(-q, +Qn) = -KqQn/d2 = - 40Ke2/9d2 Also the charges +Q and -Qn distributed along the peripheries of proton and neutron yield an attractive electric force - Fe(+Q, -Qn) given by a difficult differential equation. Since the spin is parallel we observe an attractive magnetic force -Fm( (+Q, -Qn) given by a difficult differential equation. That is, in the simple p-n system one observes one strong attractive force between the point charges and two weak attractive forces between the peripheral charges. However in this simple p-n system one observes a repulsive electric force +Fe(-q, -Qn) given by a difficult differential equation, because the negative point charge -q of the proton interacts with the negative peripheral charge -Qn of the neutron. In the same way we observe a repulsive electric force +Fe (+Qn, + Q) because the positive point charge +Qn at the center of neutron interacts with the positive peripheral charge +Q of the proton. So the attractive electromagnetic force Fpn of the p-n system is given by Fpn = -40Ke2/9d2 - Fe (+Q, - Qn) -Fm ( +Q,-Qn) + Fe ( -q, -Qn ) + Fe ( +Qn + Q) Since the first force is a strong attractive force and the next attractions with the repulsions give a small net force we can take into account the binding energy E in MeV of the first force of interacting point charges by writing 40Ke/9d < 2.2246 MeV Thus substituting the constants one gets d < 2.877/1015 m. TODAY PHYSICISTS CONTINUE TO BELIEVE INCORRECTLY THAT THE DEUTERON STRUCTURE AND BINDING COULD BE EXPLAIED BY THE WRONG NUCLEAR THEORIES Although this simple explanation of the deuteron structure and binding is based on the well-established laws able to tell us how the charges of two spinning nucleons interact electromagnetically with parallel spin ( S = 1 ) for giving the nuclear binding and force in the simplest nuclear structure of the deuterium, today physicists continue to believe that the nuclear structure of the deuterium could be explained by the false nuclear theories and models which could not lead to the simplest structure of deuteron. For example in the “Deuterium -Wikipedia” and especially in chapter “ Isospin singlet state of the deuteron” one reads the following fallacious ideas: “Due to the similarity in mass and nuclear properties between the proton and neutron, they are sometimes considered as two symmetric types of the same object, a nucleon. While only the proton has an electric charge, this is often negligible due to the weakness of the electromagnetic interaction relative to the strong nuclear interaction. The symmetry relating the proton and neutron is known as isospin and denoted I (or sometimes T). Isospin is an SU(2) symmetry, like ordinary spin, so is completely analogous to it. The proton and neutron form an isospin doublet, with a "down" state (↓) being a neutron, and an "up" state (↑) being a proton.” ' ' CONCLUSIONS It is indeed unfortunate that the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron led to the abandonment of electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong theories of nuclear force and nuclear structure. However after my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON the application of the well-established electromagnetic laws on the charges of extra 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron led to the correct structure of deuteron, which invalidates the so-called Charge Independence Hypothesis . The deuteron is a stable p-n system composed of a proton and a neutron with parallel spin along the radial direction giving a binding energy of 2.2246 MeV. It's stability is remarkable since the free neutron is unstable, undergoing beta decay with a half life of 10.3 minutes. Especially the deuteron binding energy of -2.2246 MeV implies that it is stable. The free neutron yields an energy of 1.29 MeV in beta decay, but the 2.2246 MeV binding energy of the deuteron prevents its decay. The stability of the deuteron is an important part of the story of the universe. In the Big Bang model it is presumed that in early stages there were equal numbers of neutrons and protons since the available energies were much higher than the 1.29 MeV required to convert a proton to a neutron under the absorption of energetic antineutrinos. When the temperature dropped to the point where neutrons could no longer be produced from protons, the decay of free neutrons began to diminish their population. Those which combined with protons to form deuterons were protected from further decay. This is fortunate for us because if all the neutrons had decayed, there would be no universe as we know it, and we wouldn't be here. (See my OUR EARLY UNIVERSE ). On the other hand in heavier nuclei like in helium the very strong attractive electromagnetic forces of the p-n systems overcome the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the p-p and n-n systems like the forces of an ionic crystal. In other words I discovered that the so-called “ Charge Independence Hypothesis” is an invalid idea which did much to retard the progress of nuclear physics. Category:Fundamental physics concepts